The concept of Industry 4.0 is set to bring significant changes to various sectors by using smart technologies and digital transformation. The manifestation of this idea in Construction (named Construction 4.0) reshaped the way built environment assets are designed, constructed and operated. The integration of smart and digital technologies, including Artificial Intelligence (AI) technology and the Internet of Things (IoT), can lead to increased efficiency, improved safety and reduced costs.1 AI allows computers and machines to mimic human intelligence to solve problems and complete tasks. The IoT is the network of physical devices, ‘things’ that are embedded with sensors, software and other smart technologies to exchange data with each other over the Internet. For example, AI can be used in construction for predictive analytics, project planning and risk management. AI can analyse vast amounts of data to identify patterns and trends, helping to predict potential issues and mitigate risks. On the other hand, IoT can be used to monitor equipment and structures in real time. Sensors of IoT devices can collect data on everything from temperature and humidity to vibration and stress, allowing for proactive maintenance and improved safety. Although these technologies are still in their early stages of adoption in the construction industry, their potential is enormous.
The application of AI and IoT in fire safety has been gaining significant attention worldwide.2 These technologies have the potential to enhance fire prevention, detection and response. AI can be used to analyse data from various sources, including IoT devices, to predict potential fire risks and suggest preventive measures. For instance, AI algorithms can analyse patterns in data from smoke detectors, temperature sensors and other IoT devices to predict where and when a fire is most likely to occur. This predictive capability can enable proactive measures to prevent fires before they start. IoT devices such as smart smoke detectors, heat sensors and fire alarms can also be interconnected and monitored remotely; in the event of a fire, these devices can send immediate alerts to the relevant authorities, ensuring a rapid response. Moreover, AI and IoT can work together to enhance fire response strategies. For instance, data from IoT can be used to inform AI-powered simulation computer models, which can help plan effective evacuation routes and strategies. In this brief technological exploration, we delve into the transformative power of AI and IoT in enhancing fire safety in buildings, looking specifically at the history of smoke detectors and their evolution to modern smart detectors equipped with AI and IoT.
The gradual integration of smart devices into our living environments has led to the development of various tools and gadgets designed to make our lives easier, more comfortable and safer (Figure 1). These devices also contribute to environmental conservation through energy efficiency by utilizing optimized new electronics, materials and designs with better performance and less energy waste, such as the use of smart dimmers, inventors, nano-scale low-power electronics and sensors. Soon, our homes will be equipped with a variety of smart systems and products. Despite the numerous benefits that smart homes offer, it is crucial to consider their safety aspects, including fire safety. According to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), nearly three out of five home fire deaths between 2014 and 2018 resulted from fires in buildings without functioning smoke alarms.3 The NFPA article highlights the evolution from traditional detectors to advanced systems. Smart fire and smoke detectors provide unprecedented capabilities in detecting, analysing and responding to fire incidents. This enhances fire safety in buildings and their occupants, as well as the operational efficiency of buildings.4 The article also underlines the crucial role of AI and IoT in these new devices and compares their performance, available regulations and technologies. The adoption of these technologies is not just a matter of convenience but a life-saving necessity.
Evolution of smoke detectors
The evolution of smoke detectors (Figure 2) is a compelling narrative of technological advancement.5,6 From the early 20th century’s heat-sensitive alarms to the sophisticated interconnected devices of the modern era, each generation of smoke detectors has offered enhanced fire safety and reliability in the field of fire-prevention technology. In the late 19th century, fire detection systems were in their infancy and offered basic protection. These initial systems were predominantly heat-based and found their use in commercial settings only, largely due to their bulky size and prohibitive cost. Later in the 1930s, the first smoke detectors suitable for both homes and businesses were developed. Despite this advancement, their steep price tags meant that they remained inaccessible to the average household. The landscape of smoke detection underwent a significant transformation in the 1960s with the invention of the ionization smoke detector by physicist Walter Jaeger in 1951. Ionization smoke detectors utilize a small amount of radioactive material to detect smoke particles in the air. This made a revolution in fire safety due to the heightened sensitivity and affordability of smoke detectors. However, they were sensitive to the small smoke particles generated from flaming fires, which activate when smoke disrupts the ionized air current. Although they detect fires quickly, they are still prone to false alarms. However, the democratization of fire safety is largely attributed to Duane D. Pearsall. This is due to his invention of an economical and battery-operated smoke detection system in 1965, which is known as the SmokeGard 700. This photoelectric detector excelled at detecting the slow-burning and smouldering fires that were more common in residential buildings. The following years witnessed a surge in legislation advocating for the installation of smoke detectors in residential buildings. This policy shift has been instrumental in saving countless lives. The photoelectric detectors excel at detecting larger smoke particles by sensing when smoke scatters a light beam onto a photosensor, resulting in fewer false alarms. Besides this, some detectors incorporate ionization and photoelectric sensors, offering a comprehensive detection approach. This dual-sensor strategy is endorsed by the NFPA and Underwriters Laboratories (UL). However, these detectors may not fully meet the complex requirements of contemporary safety standards. According to the ‘Smoke Alarm Market’ report, the global smoke detector market was projected to generate US$1,956.9 million US in revenues in 2023.7 The demand for smoke detectors is expected to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 7.1%, reaching an estimated US$3,885.7 million US by 2033. Recently, the NFPA has reported a 50% reduction in residential fires from 1980 to 2022, with the number of incidents dropping from 734,000 to 363,000.8 Additionally, property loss, adjusted for inflation, was 20% lower in 2022 than in 1980. This significant reduction in residential fires could be attributed largely to the widespread installation and maintenance of smoke detectors.
Entering the 21st century, smoke detection technology has embraced the rapid growth of smart home innovations (Figure 3). According to Virtue Market Research’s latest analysis, the Global Smart Smoke Detector Market was estimated at US$2.26 billion US in 2023. It is projected to grow to US$4.03 billion US by 2030, with a CAGR of 8.6% between 2024 and 2030.9 Contemporary smoke detectors are not only Wi-Fi–enabled for remote monitoring but also can be integrated with a suite of other smart home devices, culminating in a comprehensive home safety ecosystem. This integration represents the latest chapter in the ongoing story of smoke detector evolution, highlighting a steadfast commitment to advancing fire safety through technological innovation. These detection systems leverage cloud computing, smart sensors and IoT gateways to identify a fire’s location within a building precisely, enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of emergency responses. These systems provide critical intelligence about fires, such as their spread, which can be monitored in real time through a robust network of sensors. Furthermore, integrated IoT enhances situational awareness for emergency personnel and first responders by aggregating and analysing data from various other sources, such as weather and traffic information, to support firefighting efforts.
Modern smart sensor technology has significantly enhanced the capabilities of fire detection systems. This enhancement includes not only detecting smoke in general but also identifying harmful gases such as carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2), thereby raising the bar for indoor safety. The latest generation of smart detectors embodies this innovation, integrating both smoke and CO detection with intelligent features that provide immediate alerts to homeowners regardless of their location at any time. Smart smoke detectors equipped with photoelectric sensors detect excessive heat as well as smoke, alerting you to undetected fires before you smell any smoke. As mentioned before, basic smoke alarms, on the other hand, use ionization sensors, which can take longer to identify smouldering fires. Smart detectors have new features, including shutting down your home’s HVAC system anytime a smoke alarm is triggered to prevent fast-burning flames from spreading, and they can interconnect with a home’s other existing smart systems, such as smart elevators, smart doors and windows to set them up for emergencies.
Once connected to the Internet through wired or Wi-Fi technology, the smart detector keeps homeowners informed by sending phone alerts about low battery levels or when the alarm is triggered. It employs a human voice to provide specific details about the location and type of danger, offering a courteous ‘Heads-up’ before sounding a loud alarm. The device performs self-checks to ensure functionality and uses advanced sensors to detect smoke or CO, representing a smarter, more connected approach to home safety. Furthermore, its compatibility with other products allows for automated recordings during an alarm event, bolstering home security, investigation and monitoring. Self-maintenance notification in the smoke detectors would result in fewer false alarm triggers. This level of interconnectedness showcases the potential of IoT to amplify the capabilities of safety devices, making them more proactive and informative during emergencies.
Recent research in fire detection has harnessed the power of AI, particularly through the use of computer vision and Convolutional Neural Networks.10 These advancements aim to improve detector precision and response time, signalling a move towards more efficient and hardware-embedded solutions. To ensure these innovative devices adhere to the highest safety and performance benchmarks, standards like UL 217 are indispensable.11 They establish critical criteria for alarm sensitivity, resistance to false alarms and durability under a variety of conditions while also guaranteeing compatibility within home safety ecosystems. NFPA72, also known as the National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code, has recently been recommended for residential spaces exceeding 1,000sq. ft. This requirement ensures that larger living areas are equipped with adequate fire detection and alarm systems, providing enhanced safety for occupants. The UL 217 standard, in conjunction with the codes and guidelines set forth by the NFPA,11 represents a holistic approach to fire safety and prevention in buildings.
Conclusion and future directions
The integration of AI and IoT into fire safety systems, such as smart smoke detectors, marks a significant advancement in detection and response technologies. Today’s cutting-edge smart smoke detectors utilize these sophisticated technologies to deliver precise and timely alerts. Standards like UL 217 are pivotal in ensuring these devices fulfill stringent safety requirements.11 This progression highlights a trend towards proactive fire management strategies, offering enhanced protection for lives and properties. To enhance fire safety in buildings and reduce potential damage, it would be crucial to consider further research into the integration of smart smoke detectors with active fire protection systems, such as the SMART Sprinkler system. This integration could lead to more efficient and responsive fire-suppression solutions, potentially saving lives and properties.12 The use of AI-powered computer vision systems combined with IoT13,14 in smart smoke detectors is still in its infancy stage, but it can be seen in research prototypes or large industrial setups. Challenges such as the lack of enough vision data, powerful electronics for processing embedded into smoke detectors, and legal privacy issues from the use of vision systems in residential and commercial buildings are the main hurdles in the development of vision-based smoke detectors. A quick look at the field of smart smoke detectors revealed that the details of smart smoke detector functionality are not clearly defined, and comparison results between smart and conventional smock detectors are not clear yet. Furthermore, standards designed for smart smoke detectors are still weak, and new updates and current standards do not cover digital technology-based issues, such as cyber-related problems.
References
- S.O. Abioye, L.O. Oyedele, L. Akanbi, A. Ajayi, J.M.D. Delgado, M. Bilal, O.O. Akinade, A. Ahmed, ‘Artificial Intelligence in the Construction Industry: A Review of Present Status, Opportunities and Future Challenges’, Journal of Building Engineering, 44, 103299, 2021.
- C. Maraveas, D. Loukatos, T. Bartzanas, K.G. Arvanitis, ‘Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Fire Safety of Agricultural Structures’, Applied Sciences, 11, 7716, 2021.
- M. Ahrens, ‘Smoke Alarms in US Home Fires’, NFPA, 2021.
- A. Hassan, A.I. Audu, ‘Traditional Sensor-Based and Computer Vision-Based Fire Detection Systems: A Review’, AZJETE, 18(3), 469, 2022.
- M.C. Ode, ‘A Brief History of Fire Alarm Equipment: The Invention of Smoke Detectors, Heat Detectors and Related Equipment’, Electrical Contractor Magazine, 2023.
- ‘The Evolution of Smoke Detectors: A Journey from Simple Alarms to Smart Safety Solutions’, X-Sense Innovations LTD., 2024.
- S. Verghese, ‘Smoke Alarm Market’, Future Market Insights Inc., 2023.
- S. Hall, ‘Fire Loss in the United States’, NFPA, 2022.
- ‘Global Smart Smoke Detector Market Research Report’, Virtue Market Research, 2023.
- H. Prasad, A. Singh, J. Thakur, C. Choudhary, N. Vyas, ‘Artificial Intelligence Based Fire and Smoke Detection and Security Control System’, 2023 International Conference on Network, Multimedia and Information Technology (NMITCON), Bengaluru, India, 2023.
- ‘Helping to Reduce Cooking Nuisance Alarms with UL 217, the Standard for Safety for Smoke Alarms’, UL Standards and Engagement, 2022, and references therein.
- M.R. Hassan, A. Tamim, J. Singh, ‘Fire resilience and sustainability in buildings: initiatives and future directions’, International Fire Protection Magazine, MDM Publishing Ltd., 96, 38, 2023.
- M.H. Mozaffari, Y. Li, Y. Ko, ‘Generative AI for Fire Safety. In: Z. Lyu (Eds) Applications of Generative AI’, Springer, Cham., 577-600, 2024.
- Y. Ko, M.H. Mozaffari, Y. Li, ‘Fire and Smoke Image Recognition. In: X. Huang, W.C. Tam, (eds) Intelligent Building Fire Safety and Smart Firefighting. Digital Innovations in Architecture, Engineering and Construction’, Springer, Cham., 305-333, 2024.
About the Author
M. Hamed Mozaffari
Fire Safety, Construction Research Center, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0R6
Rokib Hassan
M. Rokib Hassan, PhD, Associate Research Officer, Fire Safety, Construction Research Centre, National Research Council Canada. Rokib.Hassan@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca
Niloofar Hooshyaripour
Fire Safety, Construction Research Center, National Research Council Canada, 1200 Montreal Road, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, K1A 0R6
